A study on Cannabis sativa L. cultivated on loamy and sandy soils in north-eastern Poland
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24425/jwld.2025.156036Abstract
The gradual implementation of legal regulations concerning sustainable agriculture, including the cultivation and use of Cannabis sativa L., in the European Union has heightened interest in this plant species among agricultural producers. This research presents the results of an on-farm field experiment conducted in north-eastern Poland to evaluate the growth, yield and physiological characteristics of Cannabis sativa L. in response to different soil conditions (loamy and sandy soils) and agronomic factors (sowing density, nitrogen fertilisation, and silicon application). C. sativa cultivated on loamy soil exhibited significantly greater growth and yield than on sandy soil, even without fertiliser application. However, sustained production would require nutrient replenishment in subsequent growing cycles. Nitrogen fertilisation increased photosynthetic rate, SPAD (leaf greenness index), and leaf area index (LAI), especially on sandy soil. However, its impact on final yield components (plant height, inflorescence length, dried mass) was minor compared to soil type. Nitrogen significantly boosted photosynthetic activity and chlorophyll content (SPAD), particularly at early growth stages. The data indicate that C. sativa can be successfully cultivated on both loamy and sandy soils, but agronomic interventions (silicon and nitrogen applications) are particularly beneficial for sandy soils. In this study, the plants also outcompeted the weeds to such an extent that herbicide application was unnecessary. Hence, cannabis can be considered a low-to-moderate input crop, and can contribute to sustainable alternative agriculture. It is recommended to repeat the present study at a larger scale over a longer term to assess the economic, environmental effects, and after-effects on crop rotation of C. sativa cultivation.References
Amaducci, S., Errani, M. and Venturi, G. (2002) “Plant population effects on fibre hemp morphology and production,” Journal of Industrial Hemp, 7, pp. 30–33. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1300/J237v07n02_04.
Amaducci, S. et al. (2008) “Influence of agronomic factors on yield and quality of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) fibre and implication for an innovative production system,” Field Crops Research, 107, pp. 161–169. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2008. 02.002.
Anderson, S.L. et al. (2021) “Response of essential oil hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) growth, biomass, and cannabinoid profiles to varying fertigation rates,” PLoS ONE, 16, e0252985. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252985.
Atoloye, I.A. et al. (2022) “Hemp biochar impacts on selected biological soil health indicators across different soil types and moisture cycles,” PLoS ONE, 17, e0264620. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264620.
Baldini, F. et al. (2018) “The performance and potentiality of monoecious hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivars as a multipurpose crop,” Agronomy, 8, pp. 162–178. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy8090162.
Barão, L. and Teixeira, R. (2015) “The environmental impacts of silicon as an alternative to phosphorus fertilizers What is the environmental impact of replacing P fertilizers with Si fertilizers?,” Eutrophication, 11, 1730.
Bennett, S.J., Snell, R. and Wright, D. (2006) “Effect of variety, seed rate and time of cutting on fibre yield of dewretted hemp,” Industrial Crops and Products, 24, pp. 79–86. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2006.03.007.
Bócsa, L. and Karus, M. (1988) The cultivation of hemp: botany, varieties, cultivation and harvesting. Sebastopol: Hemptech.
Bócsa, I., Máthé, P. and Hangyel, L. (1997) “Effect of nitrogen on tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content in hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) leaves at different positions,” Journal of International Hemp Association, 4, pp. 78–79.
Campiglia, E., Radicetti, E. and Mancinelli, R. (2017) “Plant density and nitrogen fertilization affect agronomic performance of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in Mediterranean environment,” Industrial Crops and Products, 100, pp. 246–254. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.02.022.
Chandra, L.S. et al. (2011) “Temperature response of photosynthesis in different drug and fibre varieties of Cannabis sativa L.,” Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants, 17, pp. 297–303. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-011-0068-4.
Chinnasami, K.N. and Chandrasekaran, S. (1978) “Silica status in certain soils of Tamil Nadu,” Madras Agricultural Journal, 65, pp. 743–746.
Coffmann, C.B. and Gentner, W.A. (1975) “Cannabinoid profile and elemental uptake of Cannabis sativa L. as influenced by soil characteristics,” Agronomy Journal, 67, pp. 491–497.
Dilena, E. et al. (2023) “Investigating how nitrogen nutrition and pruning impacts on CBD and THC concentration and plant biomass of Cannabis sativa,” Scientific Reports, 13, 19533. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-46369-5.
Evarte-Bundere, G. and Evarts-Bunders, P. (2012) “Using of the Hydrothermal coefficient (HTC) for interpretation of distribution of non-native tree species in Latvia on example of cultivated species of genus Tilia,” Acta Biologica Universitatis Daugavpiliensis, 12(2), pp. 135–148.
Farnisa, M.M. et al. (2023) “Floral hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) responses to nitrogen fertilization under field conditions in the high desert,” PLoS ONE, 18, e0284537. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284537.
Finnan, J. and Burke, B. (2013) “Nitrogen fertilization to optimize the green gas balance of hemp crops grown for biomass,” Global Change Biology Bioenergy, 5, pp. 701–712. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12045.
Gill, A.R. et al. (2022) “Physiological and morphological responses of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) to water deficit,” Industrial Crops and Products, 187, Part A, 115331. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.115331.
Gill, A.R.·et al. (2023) “The potential of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) as an emerging drought resistant fibre crop,” Plant and Soil, 493, pp. 7–16. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-023-06219-9.
Grabowska, K. and Koziara, W. (2001) “Wpływ temperatury i opadów na plonowanie konopi włóknistych odm. Białobrzeskie [Effect on temperature and precipitation on yields of the Cannabis sativa variety Białobrzeskie],” Natural Fibres, 45, pp. 7–17.
Greger, M., Landberg, T. and Vaculík, M. (2018) “Silicon influences soil availability and accumulation of mineral nutrients in various plant species,” Plants, 7, pp. 1–16. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants7020041.
Haney, A. and Kutscheid, B.B. (1973) “Quantitative variation in the chemical constituents of marihuana from stands of naturalized Cannabis sativa L. in east-central Illionis,” Economic Botany, 27, pp. 193–203.
Hemphill, J.K., Turner, J.C. and Mahlberg, P.G. (1980) “Cannabinoid content of individual plant organs from different geographical strains of Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabinaceae),” Journal of Natural Products, 43, pp. 112–122.
Höppner, F. and Menge-Hartmann, U. (1995) “Cultivation experiments with two fibre hemp varieties,” Journal of International Hemp Association, 2, pp. 18–22. IUSS (2022) World Reference Base for Soil Resources. International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. 4th edn. Vienna, Austria: International Union of Soil Sciences.
Jaremko, D. and Kalembasa, D. (2014) “A comparison of methods for the determination of cation exchange capacity of soils,” Ecological Chemistry and Engineering S, 21(3), pp. 487–498. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2478/eces-2014-0036.
Kannan, N.M. and Raj, S.A. (1998) “Occurrence of silicate solubilizing bacteria in rice ecosystem,” Madras Agricultural Journal, 85, pp. 47–50.
Kaur, N. et al. (2023) “Nitrogen fertilization impact on hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) crop production. A review,” Agronomy Journal, 115(4), pp. 1557–1570. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.21345.
Kim, J. et al. (2024) “Characterization of male flower induction by silver thiosulfate foliar spray in female cannabis at the middle reproductive stage for breeding,” Plants, 13, 2429. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13172429.
Komosa, A. and Stafecka, A. (2003) “Comparison of phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium contents determined with the universal, Egner-Riehm and Schachtschabel methods in orchard soils,” Folia Horticulturae, 15(2), pp. 137–149.
Kostuik, J. and Williams, D.W. (2019) “Hemp agronomy–grain and fiber production,” in J. Fike et al. (eds.) Industrial hemp as a modern commodity crop. Madison, WI, USA: American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society, pp. 59–72.
LI-COR Inc. Biosciences (2010) LAI-2200 Plant canopy analyzer. Instruction Manual. Lincoln, NE.
Lipson Feder, C. et al. (2021) “Fertilization following pollination predominantly decreases phytocannabinoids accumulation and alters the accumulation of terpenoids in Cannabis inflorescences,” Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 753847. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.753847.
Lisson, S.N., Mendham, N.J. and Carberry, P.S. (2000) “Development of a hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) simulation model. General introduction and the effect of temperature on the pre-emergent development of hemp,” Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 40, pp. 405–411. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1071/EA99058.
Ma, J.F. and Yamaji, N. (2006) “Silicon uptake and accumulation in higher plants,” Trends in Plant Science, 11, pp. 392–393. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2006.06.007.
Meena, V.D. et al. (2014) “A case for silicon fertilization to improve crop yields in tropical soils,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences, 84, pp. 505–518. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40011-013-0270-y.
Neu, S., Schaller, J. and Dudel, E.G. (2017) “Silicon availability modifies nutrient use efficiency and content, C:N:P stoichiometry, and productivity of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum),” Scientific Reports, 7, 40829. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40829.
Papastylianou, P., Kakabouki, I., and Travlos, I. (2018) “Effect of nitrogen fertilization on growth and yield of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.),” Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca, 46(1), pp. 197–201. Available at: https://doi.org/10.15835/nbha46110862.
Peltonen, J., Virtanen, A. and Haggren, E. (1995) “Using a chlorophyll meter to optimize nitrogen fertilizer application for intensively managed small-grain cereals,” Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 174, pp. 309–318. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-037X.1995.tb01118.x.
PN-R-04031:1997. Analiza chemiczno-rolnicza gleby – Pobieranie próbek [Agricultural-chemical soil analysis – sampling]. Warszawa: Polski Komitet Normalizacyjny.
Poniatowska, J. et al. (2019) “Contribution of Polish agrotechnical studies on Cannabis sativa L. to the global industrial hemp cultivation and processing economy,” Herba Polonica, 65, pp. 37–50. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2478/hepo-2019-0012.
Poniatowska, J. et al. (2022) “Variability of cannabinoid yields of fibre hemp cultivars depending on the sowing density and nitrogen fertilization,” Plant Soil Environment, 68(11), pp. 525–532. Available at: https://doi.org/10.17221/223/2022-PSE.
Poniatowska, J. et al. (2024) “The influence of sowing density and nitrogen fertilization on the yielding and main technological features of some hemp varieties,” Journal of Natural Fibers, 21(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2024.2433065.
Reithmaier, G.M.S. et al. (2017) “Enhanced silicon availability leads to increased methane production, nutrient and toxicant mobility in peatlands,” Scientific Reports, 18, 8728. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09130-3.
Rupasinghe, H.P.V. et al. (2020) “Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa) as an emerging source for value-added functional food ingredients and nutraceuticals,” Molecules, 25, 4078. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25184078.
Saloner, A. and Bernstein, N. (2020) “Response of medical cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) to nitrogen supply under long photoperiod,” Frontiers Plant Science, Section Plant Nutrition, 11, 572293. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.572293.
Saloner, A, and Bernstein N. (2022) “Nitrogen Source Matters: High NH4/NO3 Ratio Reduces Cannabinoids, Terpenoids, and Yield in Medical Cannabis,” Frontiers Plant Sciences, Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.830224.
Schaller, J. et al. (2012) “Silicon supply modifies C:N:P stoichiometry and growth of Phragmites australis,” Plant Biology, 14, pp. 392–396. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1438-8677.2011.00537.x.
Sengloung, T., Kaveeta, L. and Nanakorn, W. (2009) “Effect of Sowing Date on Growth and Development of Thai Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.),” Agriculture and Natural Resources, 43, pp. 423–431.
Song, M.H. et al. (2012) “Different inter-annual responses to availability and form of nitrogen explain species coexistence in an alpine meadow community after release from grazing,” Global Change Biology, 18, pp. 3100–3111. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02738.x.
Song, Z.L. et al. (2014) “Ecological stoichiometry of N:P:Si in China’s grasslands,” Plant Soil, 380, pp. 165–179. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-014-2084-y.
Struik, P.C. et al. (2000) “Agronomy of fibre hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in Europe,” Industrial Crops and Products, 11, pp. 107–118. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-6690(99)00048-5.
Struyf, E. et al. (2010) “Historical land use change has lowered terrestrial silica mobilization,” Nature Communications, 1, 129. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms1128.
Swora-Cwynar, E., Gała, P. and Łata, M. (2025) “Hemp in Poland – the importance of social communication and health education in using the plant’s potential in medicine, economy and agricul-ture – current status,” Przegląd Epidemiologiczny – Epidemiological review, 79(1), pp. 1–37. Available at: https://doi.org/10.32394/pe/203854.
Tang, K. et al. (2017) “Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) leaf photosynthesis in relation to nitrogen content and temperature: implications for hemp as a bio-economically sustainable crop,” Global Change Biology Bioenergy, 9, pp. 1573–1587. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12451.
Teleszko, M., Zając, A. and Rusak, T. (2022) “Hemp seeds of the Polish ‘Bialobrzeskie’ and ‘Henola’ Varieties (Cannabis sativa L. var. sativa) as prospective plant sources for food production,” Molecules, 27, 1448. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/mole-cules27041448.
TIBCO Software Inc. (2017) Statistica (Data Analysis Software System) ver. 13. [Computer program]. Available at: https://docs.tibco.com/products/tibco-statistica-document-management-system-13-3-1 (Accessed: October 10, 2024).
Upton, R. et al. (2013) American herbal pharmacopeia: Cannabis inflorescence: Cannabis spp: Standards of identity, analysis, and quality control. Scott’s Valley, CA: American Herbal Pharmaco-poeia.
Wawro, A., Batog, J. and Gieparda, W. (2021) “Polish varieties of industrial hemp and their utilisation in the efficient production of lignocellulosic ethanol,” Molecules, 26(21), 6467. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26216467.
Wee, Y.B. et al. (2025) “Same, yet different: towards understanding nutrient use in hemp- and drug-type Cannabis,” Journal of Experimental Botany, 76(1), pp. 94–108. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erae362.
Xu, D. et al. (2020) “Silicon addition improves plant productivity and soil nutrient availability without changing the grass: legume ratio response to N fertilization,” Scientific Reports, 10, 10295. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-67333-7.
Zdaniewicz, M. et al. (2024) “Characteristics of selected bioactive compounds and malting parameters of hemp (Cannabis sativa L) seeds and malt,” Molecules, 29, 4345. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29184345.
Zielonka, D. et al. (2017) “Efficiency of the photosynthetic apparatus in Cannabis sativa L. fertilized with sludge from a wastewater treatment plant and with phosphogypsum,” Ecological Questions, 28, pp. 55–61. Available at: https://doi.org/10.12775/EQ.2017.039.
Żuk-Gołaszewska, K. (2008) Produkcyjność i produktywność jęczmie-nia jarego (Hordeum vulgare L.) uprawianego w różnych warunkach agrotechniki [Productivity and productiveness of spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) cultivated in different agrotechnical conditions]. Rozprawy i Monografie, 136. Olsztyn: Uniwersytet Warmińsko-Mazurski w Olsztynie.
Żuk-Gołaszewska, K. and Gołaszewski, J. (2018) “Cannabis sativa L.: cultivation and quality of raw material – review,” Journal of Elementology, 23, pp. 971–984. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5601/jelem.2017.22.3.1500.
Żuk-Gołaszewska, K. and Gołaszewski, J. (2020) “Hemp production,” in G. Crini and E. Lichtfouse (eds.) Hemp production and applications. Sustainable agriculture, Reviews, 42. Cham: Springer Nature, pp. 1–36. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030- 41384-2_1.
