Grid-forming inverters in converter-dominated power systems: control strategies, deployments, and barriers in the ENTSO-E context

Abstract

The ongoing transformation of electric power systems toward converter-dominated power systems poses major challenges for system stability, inertia provision, and voltage control. This review paper examines the role of grid-forming inverters in converter-dominated power systems, analyzing their control strategies, deployment experiences, and implementation barriers in the ENTSO-E context. Three main control approaches – Droop-based control, Virtual Synchronous Machine (VSM), and Virtual Oscillator Control (VOC) – are analyzed in terms of operational principles, advantages and limitations. The paper synthesizes findings from recent literature, regulatory documents, and real-world implementations in the United Kingdom, Germany, and Australia. By identifying both the technical feasibility and regulatory challenges of grid-forming inverters adoption, the review contributes to the ongoing discussion on stability provision and market design for low-inertia systems. This paper contributes to the literature by providing a systematic and policy-oriented review of grid-forming inverter control strategies and deployments, with emphasis on barriers and enablers for their adoption within the ENTSO-E framework. It integrates recent findings from both academic and industry sources (2017–2025) to bridge the gap between control theory and regulatory implementation.